Chapter 2: Health and its determinants

References

Health and its determinants 1-3 

1. WHO Centre for Health Development (Kobe, Japan). A Glossary of Terms for Community Health Care and Services for Older Persons; 2004.

2. Carel HH. Illness, phenomenology, and philosophical method.
Theor Med Bioeth. 2013;34(4):345-357. doi:10.1007/s11017-013-9265-1

3. Gadamer HG. The Enigma of Health.
Polity Press; 1996. ISBN 9780745615943

Illness and disease 4-9 

4. Ventriglio A, Torales J, Bhugra D. Disease versus illness: What do clinicians need to know?
Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2017;63(1):3-4. doi:10.1177/0020764016658677

5. Cassell EJ. The Healer’s Art: A New Approach to the Doctor-Patient Relationship.
Penguin Books; 1978. ISBN 9780397010981

6. Toombs SK. The temporality of illness: Four levels of experience.
Theor Med. 1990;11(3):227-241. doi:10.1007/BF00489832

7. Chrisman NJ. The health seeking process: An approach to the natural history of illness.
Cult Med Psychiatry. 1977;1(4):351-377. doi:10.1007/BF00116243

8. Bar-Haim S. ‘The Drug Doctor’: Michael Balint and the revival of general practice in postwar Britain.
Hist Workshop J. 2018;86:114-132. doi:10.1093/hwj/dby017
Michael Balint's books 'The doctor, his patient and the illness' and 'Six minutes for the patient' brought a new perspective to the GP consultation. Balint groups provide a safe space for clinicians to discuss consultations and gain insights into what happens during them. 

9. Balestra C, Boarini R, Tosetto E. What matters most to people? Evidence from the OECD Better Life Index users’ responses.
Soc Indic Res. 2018;136(3):907-930. doi:10.1007/s11205-016-1538-4

Social determinants of health 10-13 

10. Mackenbach JP. Politics is nothing but medicine at a larger scale: reflections on public health’s biggest idea.
J Epidemiol Community Health. 2009;63(3):181-184. doi:10.1136/jech.2008.077032

11. Yusuf S, Joseph P, Rangarajan S, et al. Modifiable risk factors, cardiovascular disease, and mortality in 155 722 individuals from 21 high-income, middle-income, and low income countries (PURE): a prospective cohort study.
The Lancet. 2020;395(10226):795-808. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32008-2

12. Marmot, Michael, Allen, Jessica, Goldblatt, Peter, et al. Fair Society, Healthy Lives: The Marmot Review.
UCL; 2010.

13. Public Health England. Psychosis Data Report: Describing Variation in Numbers of People with Psychosis and Their Access to Care in England.
Public Health England; 2016:77.

Inequality 14-35 

14. see note 12, Marmot 2010

15. Wilkinson RG. Socioeconomic determinants of health: health inequalities: relative or absolute material standards?
BMJ. 1997;314(7080):591-591. doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7080.591

16. Fitzpatrick S, Bramley G, Blenkinsopp J, et al. Destitution in the UK.
Joseph Rowntree Foundation; 2020.

17. Alston, Philip. Statement on Visit to the United Kingdom, by Professor Philip Alston, United Nations Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights; 2018.

18. Barry, Andrea, Brook, Paul, Cebula, Carla, et al. UK Poverty 2022.
Joseph Rowntree Foundation; 2022.

19. Scott, Courtney, Sutherland, Jennifer, Taylor, Anna. Affordability of the UK’s Eatwell Guide.
The Food Foundation; 2018. 

20. Macdonald L, Olsen JR, Shortt NK, Ellaway A. Do ‘environmental bads’ such as alcohol, fast food, tobacco, and gambling outlets cluster and co-locate in more deprived areas in Glasgow?
Health Place. 2018;51:224-231. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.04.008

21. QIntervention.
https://qintervention.org/
QIntervention is a cardiovascular risk calculator, based on real time risk data, which shows the effects of changing risk factors such as stopping smoking or taking a statin.

22. Cookson R, Propper C, Asaria M, Raine R. Socio-economic inequalities in health care in England.
Fisc Stud. 2016;37(3-4):371-403. doi:10.1111/j.1475-5890.2016.12109

23. Tudor Hart J. The inverse care law.
The Lancet. 1971;297(7696):405-412. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(71)92410-X

24. Marmot M, Allen J, Boyce T, Goldblatt P, Morrison J. Health Equity in England: The Marmot Report 10 Years On.
Institute of Health Equity; 2020:172. 

25. Wilkinson RG, Pickett K. The Spirit Level: Why Equality Is Better for Everyone.
Penguin Books; 2010. ISBN 9780241954294

26. Alesina, Alberto, Rodrik, Dani. Distributive Politics and Economic Growth.
National Bureau of Economic Research; 1991:54.

27. Birdsall N, Ross D, Sabot R. Inequality and growth reconsidered: lessons from East Asia.
World Bank Econ Rev. 1995;9(3):477-508. doi:10.1093/wber/9.3.477
Each standard deviation reduction in income inequality increases GDP by 8.2% after a generation. 

28. Kennedy BP, Kawachi I, Prothrow-Stith D. Income distribution and mortality: cross sectional ecological study of the Robin Hood index in the United States.
BMJ. 1996;312(7037):1004-1007. doi:10.1136/bmj.312.7037.1004

29. see note 12, Marmot 2010

30. Rodgers GB. Income and inequality as determinants of mortality: An international cross-section analysis.
Popul Stud. 1979;33(2):343-351. doi:10.1080/00324728.1979.10410449

31. see note 15, Wilkinson 1997

32. Kaplan GA, Pamuk ER, Lynch JW, Cohen RD, Balfour JL. Inequality in income and mortality in the United States: analysis of mortality and potential pathways.
BMJ. 1996;312(7037):999-1003. doi:10.1136/bmj.312.7037.999

33. Putnam RD, Leonardi R, Nanetti R. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy.
Princeton University Press; 1993. ISBN 9780691037387

34. see note 15, Wilkinson 1997

35. Kennedy, Bruce, Kawachi, Ichiro, 10.1136/bmj.312.7037.1004. Important correction to Income distribution and mortality: cross sectional ecological study of the Robin Hood index in the United States.
BMJ. 1996;312(7040):1194-1194. doi:10.1136/bmj.312.7040.1194

How do social determinants affect health? 36 

36. Barker D. The origins of the developmental origins theory.
J Intern Med. 2007;261(5):412-417. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01809.x

Microbiome 37-40 

37. Robertson RC, Manges AR, Finlay BB. The human microbiome and child growth; first 1000 days and beyond.
Trends Microbiol. 2019;27(2):131-147. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2018.09.008

38. O’Mahony S, Clarke G, Borre Y, Dinan T, Cryan J. Serotonin, tryptophan metabolism and the brain-gut-microbiome axis.
Behav Brain Res. 2015;277:32-48. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.027

39. Trasande L, Blustein J, Liu M, Corwin E, Cox LM, Blaser MJ. Infant antibiotic exposures and early-life body mass.
Int J Obes. 2013;37(1):16-23. doi:10.1038/ijo.2012.132

40. Gilbert JA, Blaser MJ, Caporaso JG, Jansson JK, Lynch SV, Knight R. Current understanding of the human microbiome.
Nat Med. 2018;24(4):392-400. doi:10.1038/nm.4517

Adverse childhood experiences 41-46 

41. Felitti VJ. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study.
Am J Prev Med. 1998;14(2):245-258. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8

42. Felitti VJ. The relation between adverse childhood experiences and adult health: turning gold into lead.
Perm J. 2002;6(1):44-47. doi:10.7812/TPP/02.994

43. Bellis MA, Hughes K, Leckenby N, Hardcastle KA, Perkins C, Lowey H. Measuring mortality and the burden of adult disease associated with adverse childhood experiences in England: a national survey.
J Public Health. 2014;37(3):445-454. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdu065

44. Hughes K, Bellis MA, Hardcastle KA, et al. The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Lancet Public Health. 2017;2(8):e356-e366. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4

45. Oral R, Ramirez M, Coohey C, et al. Adverse childhood experiences and trauma informed care: the future of health care.
Pediatr Res. 2016;79(1):227-233. doi:10.1038/pr.2015.197

46. Lanier P, Maguire-Jack K, Lombardi B, Frey J, Rose RA. Adverse childhood experiences and child health outcomes: comparing cumulative risk and latent class approaches.
Matern Child Health J. 2018;22(3):288-297. doi:10.1007/s10995-017-2365-1

Physiology of trauma 47-58 

47. McEwen BS. Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: central role of the brain.
Physiol Rev. 2007;87(3):873-904. doi:10.1152/physrev.00041.2006

48. Davillas A, Benzeval M, Kumari M. Socio-economic inequalities in C-reactive protein and fibrinogen across the adult age span: Findings from Understanding Society.
Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):2641. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-02888-6

49. Kennedy BP, Kawachi I, Lochner K, Jones C, Prothrow-Stith D. (Dis)respect and black mortality.
Ethn Dis. 1997;7(3):207-214.

50. White K. The sustaining relevance of W. E. B. Du Bois to health disparities research.
Bois Rev Soc Sci Res Race. 2011;8(1):285-293. doi:10.1017/S1742058X11000233

51. see note 47, McEwen 2007

52. Lang J, McKie J, Smith H, et al. Adverse childhood experiences, epigenetics and telomere length variation in childhood and beyond: a systematic review of the literature.
Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2020;29(10):1329-1338. doi:10.1007/s00787-019-01329-1

53. Kuzawa CW, Sweet E. Epigenetics and the embodiment of race: Developmental origins of US racial disparities in cardiovascular health.
Am J Hum Biol. 2009;21(1):2-15. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20822

54. Finkelhor D. Screening for adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): Cautions and suggestions.
Child Abuse Negl. 2018;85:174-179. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.07.016

55. Asmussen K, Fischer F, Drayton E, McBride T. Adverse Childhood Experiences: What We Know, What We Don’t Know, and What Should Happen Next.
Early Intervention Foundation; 2020. 

56. EIF. Early Intervention Federation Guidebook. Published March 20, 2017.
https://guidebook.eif.org.uk/home/

57. Heckman JJ. Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children.
Science. 2006;312(5782):1900-1902. doi:10.1126/science.1128898

The ‘Heckman curve’ is a visualisation of how the earliest investments in children bring the biggest rewards. This is well recognised, but healthcare stays stuck in the model of reactive rather than preventative care. Cutting back on early years help such as closing SureStart centres is a false economy.

58. Aked, Jody, Steuer, Nicola, Lawlor, Eilis, Spratt, Stephen. Backing the Future: Why Investing in Children Is Good for Us All.
New Economics Foundation; 2009.

Trauma informed communities 59-61 

59. Diseth TH. Dissociation in children and adolescents as reaction to trauma – an overview of conceptual issues and neurobiological factors.
Nord J Psychiatry. 2005;59(2):79-91. doi:10.1080/08039480510022963

60. Harding, Keir. Diagnosing borderline personality disorder: a 21st century witch hunt.
Beam Consultancy. Published October 21, 2020.
An interesting comparison of current and historical approaches to personality disorder, including the misogyny inherent within responses. 

61. https://www.acesonlinelearning.com

Resilience 62-70 

62. Bonanno GA, Diminich ED. Annual research review: Positive adjustment to adversity: trajectories of minimal-impact resilience and emergent resilience.
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2012;54(4):378-401. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12021

63. Turk J, Graham PJ, Verhulst FC, Graham PJ. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: A Developmental Approach.
4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2007. ISBN 9780198526124
3rd edition is online: https://archive.org/details/childadolescentp0000turk

64. Moldofsky H. Sleep and pain.
Sleep Med Rev. 2001;5(5):385-396. doi:10.1053/smrv.2001.0179

65. Fredrickson BL. What good are positive emotions?
Rev Gen Psychol J Div 1 Am Psychol Assoc. 1998;2(3):300-319. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300

66. Brody GH, Yu T, Chen E, Miller GE, Kogan SM, Beach SRH. Is resilience only skin deep?: rural African Americans’ socioeconomic status–related risk and competence in preadolescence and psychological adjustment and allostatic load at age 19.
Psychol Sci. 2013;24(7):1285-1293. doi:10.1177/0956797612471954

67. World Health Organization. Strengthening Resilience: A Priority Shared by Health 2020 and the Sustainable Development Goals; 2017. 

68. Child and Youth Resilience Measure & Adult Resilience Measure. 

69. see note 44, Hughes 2017

70. Newman T, University of Exeter. Centre for Evidence-Based Social Services (GB). Promoting resilience: a review of effective strategies for child care services; 2002.

Tables

Table 2.1 Antonovsky's conceptual model of health

a. Antonovsky, Aaron. Health, Stress and Coping.
Jossey-Bass; 1979. ISBN 9780875894126

Table 2.2 Social determinants of health

No references

Table 2.3 NHS costs of modifiable risk factors

a. Rayner M. The burden of food related ill health in the UK.
J Epidemiol Community Health. 2005;59(12):1054-1057. doi:10.1136/jech.2005.036491

b. Pretty J, Barton J, Pervez Bharucha Z, et al. Improving health and well-being independently of GDP: dividends of greener and prosocial economies.
Int J Environ Health Res. 2016;26(1):11-36. doi:10.1080/09603123.2015.1007841
c. Wilkinson RG. Socioeconomic determinants of health: health inequalities: relative or absolute material standards?
BMJ. 1997;314(7080):591-591. doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7080.591

d. Fitzpatrick S, Bramley G, Blenkinsopp J, et al. Destitution in the UK.
Joseph Rowntree Foundation; 2020.

Table 2.4 Poverty and inequality in the UK

a. Office for National Statistics. Wealth in Great Britain Wave 5: 2014 to 2016.
ONS; 2018.

b. Barry, Andrea, Brook, Paul, Cebula, Carla, et al. UK Poverty 2022.
Joseph Rowntree Foundation; 2022.

c. Frontier Economics. Estimating the Costs of Health Inequalities: A Report Prepared for the Marmot Review.
Frontier Economics Ltd; 2010. 

d. Popay J, Whitehead M, Hunter DJ. Injustice is killing people on a large scale--but what is to be done about it?
J Public Health. 2010;32(2):148-149. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdq029

e. Edwards P, Roberts I, Green J, Lutchmun S. Deaths from injury in children and employment status in family: analysis of trends in class specific death rates.
BMJ. 2006;333(7559):119. doi:10.1136/bmj.38875.757488.4F

Table 2.5 Measures of inequality

a. Cobham A, Sumner A. Is inequality all about the tails?: The Palma measure of income inequality.
Significance. 2014;11(1):10-13. doi:10.1111/j.1740-9713.2014.00718.x

b. Kennedy, Bruce, Kawachi, Ichiro, 10.1136/bmj.312.7037.1004. Important correction to Income distribution and mortality: cross sectional ecological study of the Robin Hood index in the United States.
BMJ. 1996;312(7040):1194-1194. doi:10.1136/bmj.312.7040.1194

Table 2.6 Adverse childhood experiences

No references

Table 2.7 common unmet psychological needs

a. Watts B, Young Foundation (London E. Sinking & Swimming: Understanding Britain’s Unmet Needs.
The Young Foundation; 2009.

Table 2.8 Factors increasing resilience

a. Masten AS. Ordinary magic: lessons from research on resilience in human development.
Educ Can. 2009;49:28-32.

Figures