Chapter 9: Planetary health

References

Planetary health 1-2

1. Rockström J, Steffen W, Noone K, et al. Planetary boundaries: exploring the safe operating space for humanity.
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2. Raworth, Kate. Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think like a 21st-Century Economist.
Random House; 2017. ISBN 978-1847941374

Depletion of the ozone layer 3-6 

3. de Gruijl FR, Longstreth J, Norval M, et al. Health effects from stratospheric ozone depletion and interactions with climate change.
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4. Smith B. Ethics of Du Pont’s CFC strategy 1975-1995.
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5. Janson C, Henderson R, Löfdahl M, Hedberg M, Sharma R, Wilkinson AJK. Carbon footprint impact of the choice of inhalers for asthma and COPD.
Thorax. 2020;75(1):82-84. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2019-213744

6. Wilkinson AJK, Braggins R, Steinbach I, Smith J. Costs of switching to low global warming potential inhalers. An economic and carbon footprint analysis of NHS prescription data in England.
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Air quality 7-13 

7. Fecht D, Fischer P, Fortunato L, et al. Associations between air pollution and socioeconomic characteristics, ethnicity and age profile of neighbourhoods in England and the Netherlands.
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8. Marmot M, Allen J, Boyce T, Goldblatt P, Morrison J. Health Equity in England: The Marmot Report 10 Years On.
Institute of Health Equity; 2020:172.

9. Committee On the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants (COMEAP). Statement on the Evidence for the Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide on Health.; 2015.

10. King’s College London. London Average Air Quality Levels.; 2018.

11. Basner M, Babisch W, Davis A, et al. Auditory and non-auditory effects of noise on health.
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12. Royal College of Physicians of London, ed. Every Breath We Take: The Lifelong Impact of Air Pollution: Report of a Working Party.
Royal College of Physicians of London; 2016.

13. NICE Programme Development Group. Physical Activity: Walking and Cycling.
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Fertiliser loading 14-19 

14. Foley JA. Global consequences of land use.
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15. Slack, Amy, Tagholm, Hugo, Taylor, Daisy. 2021 Water Quality Report.
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16. Drinking Water Inspectorate. Drinking Water 2020: Private Water Supplies in England.; 2021.

17. Ward M, Jones R, Brender J, et al. Drinking water nitrate and human health: an updated review.
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18. Smith VH, Schindler DW. Eutrophication science: where do we go from here?
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19. Otten TG, Paerl HW. Health effects of toxic cyanobacteria in US drinking and recreational waters: our current understanding and proposed direction.
Curr Environ Health Rep. 2015;2(1):75-84. doi:10.1007/s40572-014-0041-9

Ocean acidification 20-21 

20. Falkenberg LJ, Bellerby RGJ, Connell SD, et al. Ocean acidification and human health.
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21. Sala E, Mayorga J, Bradley D, et al. Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate.
Nature. 2021;592(7854):397-402. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z

Freshwater use 22-26 

22. Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks.
World Health Organization; 2009.

23. World Health Organization. Protecting Health from Climate Change : Connecting Science, Policy and People.
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24. Levy BS, Sidel VW. Collective violence caused by climate change and how it threatens health and human rights.
Health Hum Rights. 2014;16(1):32-40. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044232
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25. Quiggin, Daniel, De Meyer, Kris, Hubble-Rose, Lucy, Froggatt, Antony. Climate Change Risk Assessment 2021.
Chatham House; 2021.

26. Desai, Nitin, Egeland, Jan, Huq, Saleemul, et al. Human Impact Report: Climate Change — the Anatomy of a Silent Crisis.
Global Humanitarian Forum; 2009.

Biodiversity loss 27-32 

27. Rook GA. Regulation of the immune system by biodiversity from the natural environment: An ecosystem service essential to health.
Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(46):18360-18367. doi:10.1073/pnas.1313731110

28. Haahtela T, Holgate S, Pawankar R, et al. The biodiversity hypothesis and allergic disease: world allergy organization position statement.
World Allergy Organ J. 2013;6:3. doi:10.1186/1939-4551-6-3

29. Cox DTC, Shanahan DF, Hudson HL, et al. Doses of neighborhood nature: the benefits for mental health of living with nature.
BioScience. Published online January 25, 2017. doi:10.1093/biosci/biw173

30. Chivian E. Why doctors and their organisations must help tackle climate change.
BMJ. 2014;348(apr02 3):g2407-g2407. doi:10.1136/bmj.g2407

31. Ostfeld RS. Biodiversity loss and the ecology of infectious disease.
Lancet Planet Health. 2017;1(1):e2-e3. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(17)30010-4

32. Vivid Economics, Natural History Museum. The Urgency of Biodiversity Action.; 2020.

Land conversion 33-36 

33. Patz JA, Daszak P, Tabor GM, et al. Unhealthy landscapes: policy recommendations on land use change and infectious disease emergence.
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34. Saaroni H, Amorim JH, Hiemstra JA, Pearlmutter D. Urban Green Infrastructure as a tool for urban heat mitigation: Survey of research methodologies and findings across different climatic regions.
Urban Clim. 2018;24:94-110. doi:10.1016/j.uclim.2018.02.001

35. Mayor of London. Using Green Infrastructure to Protect People from Air Pollution.
Greater London Authority; 2019.

36. Donovan RG, Stewart HE, Owen SM, MacKenzie AR, Hewitt CN. Development and application of an urban tree air quality score for photochemical pollution episodes using the Birmingham, United Kingdom area as a case study.
Environ Sci Technol. 2005;39(17):6730-6738. doi:10.1021/es050581y

Chemical pollution 37-41 

37. Grandjean P, Landrigan PJ. Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals.
The Lancet. 2006;368(9553):2167-2178. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69665-7

38. VerBruggen, Robert. Lead and Crime: A Review of the Evidence and the Path Forward.
Manhattan Institute; 2021.

39. Comber S, Gardner M, Sörme P, Leverett D, Ellor B. Active pharmaceutical ingredients entering the aquatic environment from wastewater
treatment works: A cause for concern?
Sci Total Environ. 2018;613-614:538-547. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.101

40. Martínez JL. Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in natural environments.
Science. 2008;321(5887):365-367. doi:10.1126/science.1159483

41. Daughton, Christian, Brooks, Bryan. Active pharmaceutical ingredients and aquatic organisms. In: Environmental Contaminants in Biota: Interpreting Tissue Concentrations. 2nd ed. Taylor and Francis; 2010. doi: 10.1201/b10598-10

Climate change 42-46 

42. IPCC. Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Cambridge University Press; 2021.

The scientific literature concerning climate change. Crucial reading for anyone living on our planet.

43. Ritchie H, Roser M. CO₂ and greenhouse gas emissions. Our World Data.
Published online May 11, 2020.

44. Costello A, Abbas M, Allen A, et al. Managing the health effects of climate change.
The Lancet. 2009;373(9676):1693-1733. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1

45. McMichael AJ, Friel S, Nyong A, Corvalan C. Global environmental change and health: impacts, inequalities, and the health sector.
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46. Jongman B, Winsemius HC, Aerts JCJH, et al. Declining vulnerability to river floods and the global benefits of adaptation.
Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2015;112(18):E2271-E2280. doi:10.1073/pnas.1414439112

Health effects of climate change 47-52 

47. see note 42, IPCC report

48. Morin CW, Comrie AC, Ernst K. Climate and dengue transmission: evidence and implications.
Environ Health Perspect. 2013;121(11-12):1264-1272. doi:10.1289/ehp.1306556

49. Tanser FC, Sharp B, Sueur D le. Potential effect of climate change on malaria transmission in Africa.
The Lancet. 2003;362(9398):1792-1798. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14898-2

50. Mora C, McKenzie T, Gaw IM, et al. Over half of known human pathogenic diseases can be aggravated by climate change.
Nat Clim Change. Published online August 8, 2022. doi:10.1038/s41558-022-01426-1

51. Christie, Alex. Blast from the past: pathogen release from thawing permafrost could lead to future pandemics.
Camb J Sci Policy. 2021;2(2):1-8. doi:10.17863/CAM.74501

52. Lawrance E, Thompson R, Fontana G, Jennings N. The Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health and Emotional Wellbeing: Current Evidence and Implications for Policy and Practice.
Imperial College London; 2021. doi:10.25561/88568

Do no harm - the impact of healthcare 53-58 

53. Tennison I, Roschnik S, Ashby B, et al. Health care’s response to climate change: a carbon footprint assessment of the NHS in England.
Lancet Planet Health. 2021;5(2):e84-e92. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30271-0

54. Thiel CL, Woods NC, Bilec MM. Strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from laparoscopic surgery.
Am J Public Health. 2018;108(S2):S158-S164. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2018.304397

55. McAlister S, Ou Y, Neff E, et al. The environmental footprint of morphine: a life cycle assessment from opium poppy farming to the packaged drug.
BMJ Open. 2016;6(10):e013302. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013302

56. Daughton CG. Cradle-to-cradle stewardship of drugs for minimizing their environmental disposition while promoting human health. Rationale for and avenues toward a green pharmacy
Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111(5):757-774. doi:10.1289/ehp.5947

57. Maibach EW, Nisbet M, Baldwin P, Akerlof K, Diao G. Reframing climate change as a public health issue: an exploratory study of public reactions.
BMC Public Health. 2010;10(1):299. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-299

58. Myers TA, Nisbet MC, Maibach EW, Leiserowitz AA. A public health frame arouses hopeful emotions about climate change.
Clim Change. 2012;113(3-4):1105-1112. doi:10.1007/s10584-012-0513-6

Costs of mitigating climate change 59-68 

59. Stern N. Summary of conclusions. In: The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. 1st ed.
Cambridge University Press; 2007. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511817434

60. Stern, Nicholas. The criticality of the next 10 years - delivering the global agenda and building infrastructure for the 21st century.
Presented at: The Stern review +10; October 28, 2015; London School of Economics and Political Science.

61. Wagner G, Anthoff D, Cropper M, et al. Eight priorities for calculating the social cost of carbon.
Nature. 2021;590(7847):548-550. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00441-0

62. Stern N, Stiglitz JE. The Social Cost of Carbon, Risk, Distribution, Market Failures: An Alternative Approach.
National Bureau of Economic Research; 2021. doi:10.3386/w28472

63. Bressler RD. The mortality cost of carbon.
Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):4467. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24487-w

64. ibid

65. WWF. Footprint Calculator.

66. Global Footprint Network. How many planets does it take to sustain your lifestyle?

67. Earth Overshoot Day.  https://www.overshootday.org/

68. Markandya A, Sampedro J, Smith SJ, et al. Health co-benefits from air pollution and mitigation costs of the Paris Agreement: a modelling study.
Lancet Planet Health. 2018;2(3):e126-e133. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30029-9

Tables

Table 9.1 Air quality in London

a. King’s College London. London Average Air Quality Levels.; 2018.

b. World Health Organization; WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines. Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide. Geneva; 2021.

Wong CM, Tsang H, Lai HK, et al. Cancer mortality risks from long-term exposure to ambient fine particle.
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2016;25(5):839-845. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-15-0626

Yusuf S, Joseph P, Rangarajan S, et al. Modifiable risk factors, cardiovascular disease, and mortality in 155 722 individuals from 21 high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries (PURE): a prospective cohort study.
The Lancet. 2020;395(10226):795-808. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32008-2

Table 9.2 Population impacts of climate change

a. Bressler RD. The mortality cost of carbon.
Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):4467. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24487-w

b. Quiggin, Daniel, De Meyer, Kris, Hubble-Rose, Lucy, Froggatt, Antony. Climate Change Risk Assessment 2021.
Chatham House; 2021.

c. Hales S, de Wet N, Maindonald J, Woodward A. Potential effect of population and climate changes on global distribution of dengue fever: an empirical model.
The Lancet. 2002;360(9336):830-834. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09964-6

d. Desai, Nitin, Egeland, Jan, Huq, Saleemul, et al. Human Impact Report: Climate Change — the Anatomy of a Silent Crisis.
Global Humanitarian Forum; 2009.

Table 9.3 Healthcare carbon footprints

a. Tennison I, Roschnik S, Ashby B, et al. Health care’s response to climate change: a carbon footprint assessment of the NHS in England.
Lancet Planet Health. 2021;5(2):e84-e92. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30271-0

b. McAlister S, Barratt AL, Bell KJ, McGain F. The carbon footprint of pathology testing.
Med J Aust. 2020;212(8):377-382. doi:10.5694/mja2.50583

c. Sherman J, Le C, Lamers V, Eckelman M. Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of anesthetic drugs.
Anesth Analg. 2012;114(5):1086-1090. doi:10.1213/ANE.0b013e31824f6940

d. Smith, James, Bansal, Aarti, Barron-Snowdon, Joe, Keeley, Duncan, Wilkinson, Alex. How to Reduce the Carbon Footprint of Inhaler Prescribing: A Guide for Healthcare Professionals in the UK.
Greener Practice; 2021.

e. Connor A, Lillywhite R, Cooke MW. The carbon footprints of home and in-center maintenance hemodialysis in the United Kingdom.
Hemodial Int. 2011;15(1):39-51. doi:10.1111/j.1542-4758.2010.00523.x

f. Andersen MPS, Sander SP, Nielsen OJ, Wagner DS, Sanford TJ, Wallington TJ. Inhalation anaesthetics and climate change.
Br J Anaesth. 2010;105(6):760-766. doi:10.1093/bja/aeq259

g. McAlister S, Ou Y, Neff E, et al. The environmental footprint of morphine: a life cycle assessment from opium poppy farming to the packaged drug.
BMJ Open. 2016;6(10):e013302. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013302

Figures

Other images