Chapter 3: Disorders of society

References

Loneliness 1-24 

1. Berkman L, Syme SL. Social networks, host resistance and mortality: A nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents.
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2. Cacioppo JT, Hawkley LC, Ernst JM, et al. Loneliness within a nomological net: An evolutionary perspective.
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3. Qualter P, Vanhalst J, Harris R, et al. Loneliness across the life span.
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As well as worsening health outcomes, loneliness increases healthcare use (Kung 2021, doi: 10.1111/1467-8462.12414).  

4. Jopling, Kate. Combatting Loneliness One Conversation at a Time.
Jo Cox Commission on Loneliness; 2017. https://www.jocoxfoundation.org

5. Office for National Statistics. Loneliness - What Characteristics and Circumstances Are Associated with Feeling Lonely?
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6. Harris RA, Qualter P, Robinson SJ. Loneliness trajectories from middle childhood to pre‐adolescence: Impact on perceived health and sleep disturbance.
J Adolesc. 2013;36(6):1295-1304. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.12.009

7. Qualter, Pamela. Tackling Loneliness Evidence Review: Main Report.
Dept for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, UK Government; 2022. 

8. Caspi A, Harrington H, Moffitt TE, Milne BJ, Poulton R. Socially Isolated Children 20 Years Later: Risk of Cardiovascular Disease.
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9. Nyqvist F, Victor CR, Forsman AK, Cattan M. The association between social capital and loneliness in different age groups: a population-based study in Western Finland.
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10. see note 5, ONS 2018

11. Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. A Connected Society: A Strategy for Tackling Loneliness – Laying the Foundations for Change.
UK Government; 2018. 

12. Barreto M, Victor C, Hammond C, Eccles A, Richins MT, Qualter P. Loneliness around the world: Age, gender, and cultural differences in loneliness.
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13. Christiansen J, Qualter P, Friis K, et al. Associations of loneliness and social isolation with physical and mental health among adolescents and young adults.
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14. Herlitz J, Wiklund I, Caidahl K, et al. The feeling of loneliness prior to coronary artery bypass grafting might be a predictor of short- and long-term postoperative mortality.
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15. Gove WR. Sex, marital status, and mortality.
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16. Cohen S. Psychosocial Vulnerabilities to Upper Respiratory Infectious Illness: Implications for Susceptibility to Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19).
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17. Cacioppo JT, Hawkley LC, Berntson GG, et al. Do lonely days invade the nights? Potential social modulation of sleep efficiency.
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18. Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Layton JB. Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. Brayne C, ed.
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This paper confirmed the risk of loneliness to be as great as that of smoking.

19. Putnam RD. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. 

Simon & Schuster; 2001. ISBN 9781982130848

20. Routasalo PE, Tilvis RS, Kautiainen H, Pitkala KH. Effects of psychosocial group rehabilitation on social functioning, loneliness and well-being of lonely, older people: randomized controlled trial.
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21. Eccles AM, Qualter P. Review: Alleviating loneliness in young people – a meta‐analysis of interventions.
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22. Ibarra F, Baez M, Cernuzzi L, Casati F. A systematic review on technology-supported interventions to improve old-age social wellbeing: loneliness, social isolation, and connectedness.
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23. McDaid, David, Park, A-La, Fernandez, Jose-Luis. Reconnections: Impact Evaluation, Final Report.
London Schools of Economics and Political Science; 2021:43. 

24. Masi CM, Chen HY, Hawkley LC, Cacioppo JT. A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness.
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UK Loneliness data by county from Sport England survey here.

Dementia 25-31 

25. Alzheimer’s Research UK. Dementia diagnoses in the UK.
Dementia Statistics Hub.

26. Wilson RS, Krueger KR, Arnold SE, et al. Loneliness and risk of Alzheimer disease.
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27. Boss L, Kang DH, Branson S. Loneliness and cognitive function in the older adult: a systematic review.
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28. Donovan NJ, Okereke OI, Vannini P, et al. Association of Higher Cortical Amyloid Burden With Loneliness in Cognitively Normal Older Adults.
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29. Sundström A, Adolfsson AN, Nordin M, Adolfsson R. Loneliness Increases the Risk of All-Cause Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease. Anderson N, ed.
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30. Kitwood T, Bredin K. Towards a Theory of Dementia Care: Personhood and Well-being.
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31. see note 30, Kitwood 1992

Mental health 32-36 

32. Morgan C, Webb RT, Carr MJ, et al. Incidence, clinical management, and mortality risk following self harm among children and adolescents: cohort study in primary care.
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33. Fischer CE, Agüera-Ortiz L. Psychosis and dementia: risk factor, prodrome, or cause?
Int Psychogeriatr. 2018;30(2):209-219. doi:10.1017/S1041610217000874

34. Adityanjee, Aderibigbe YA, Theodoridis D, Vieweg WVR. Dementia praecox to schizophrenia: The first 100 years.
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35. Moncrieff J. Questioning the ‘neuroprotective’ hypothesis: does drug treatment prevent brain damage in early psychosis or schizophrenia?
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36. Burns JK. An evolutionary theory of schizophrenia: Cortical connectivity, metarepresentation, and the social brain.
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Diagnosis 37-42 

37. Middleton H, Shaw I. Inequalities in mental health: Models and explanations.
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38. Cartwright, Samuel. Report on the diseases and physical peculiarities of the Negro race.
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39. Bromberg W. The “protest” psychosis: a special type of reactive psychosis.
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40. Corbie-Smith G. The continuing legacy of the Tuskegee syphilis study: considerations for clinical investigation.
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41. Friedli L, Stearn R. Positive affect as coercive strategy: conditionality, activation and the role of psychology in UK government workfare programmes.
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42. Briken K, Taylor P. Fulfilling the ‘British way’: beyond constrained choice-Amazon workers’ lived experiences of workfare.
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Distress 43-49 

43. Dowrick C. Beyond Depression: A New Approach to Understanding and Management.
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44. NICE guideline. Depression in Adults: Treatment and Management.
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45. Moncrieff J, Cooper RE, Stockmann T, Amendola S, Hengartner MP, Horowitz MA. The serotonin theory of depression: a systematic umbrella review of the evidence.
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46. Freud, Sigmund. Mourning and melancholia.
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47. Kübler-Ross E. On Death and Dying.
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48. Halliwell E. Up and Running? Exercise Therapy and the Treatment of Mild or Moderate Depression in Primary Care.

Mental Health Foundation; 2005.

49. Layard, Richard, Clark, David M. Annexes to THRIVE: The Revolutionary Potential of Evidence-Based Psychological Therapies.
London School of Economics and Political Science; 2013.

Symptomatology 50-58 

50. Thomas KB. Temporarily dependent patient in general practice.

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51. Fields HL. Pain modulation: expectation, opioid analgesia and virtual pain.
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52. Rotter JB. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.
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53. Fitzpatrick M. Myalgic encephalomyelitis--the dangers of Cartesian fundamentalism.
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54. Kleinman A, Becker AE. ‘Sociosomatics’: the contributions of anthropology to psychosomatic medicine.
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55. Kirmayer LJ, Groleau D, Looper KJ, Dao MD. Explaining medically unexplained symptoms.
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56. Launer J. Medically unexplored stories.
Postgrad Med J. 2009;85(1007):503-504. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2009.087411
John Launer's book 'Narrative based primary care' hugely influenced the way I consult. Highly recommended for clinicians. ISBN 9781857755398

57. Howard Brody. ‘My story is broken; can you help me fix it?’: Medical ethics and the joint construction of narrative.
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58. Russell C. Rekindling Democracy: A Professional’s Guide to Working in Citizen Space.
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Does more healthcare make us more healthy? 59-71 

59. Sen A. Health: perception versus observation: Self reported morbidity has severe limitations and can be extremely misleading.
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The graphs in this paper by Amartya Sen compare life expectancy vs self reported morbidity in Bihar, one of the poorest regions in India, with the USA. People with longer life expectancy were much more likely to complain of morbidity, despite the significant increase in wealth and healthcare. 

60. County Health Rankings Scientific Advisory Group. County Health Rankings and Roadmaps.

University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute; 2022.

61. Martin S, Longo F, Lomas J, Claxton K. Causal impact of social care, public health and healthcare expenditure on mortality in England: cross-sectional evidence for 2013/2014.
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62. Gray M, Gray J, Howick J. Personalised healthcare and population healthcare.
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63. Norris SL, Holmer HK, Ogden LA, Burda BU. Conflict of interest in clinical practice guideline development: a systematic review. Mintzes B, ed.
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64. Steinman MA, Shlipak MG, McPhee SJ. Of principles and pens: attitudes and practices of medicine housestaff toward pharmaceutical industry promotions.
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65. Ozieranski P, Rickard E, Mulinari, S. Exposing drug industry funding of UK patient organisations.
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66. Coombes R. UK adopts growth charts based on data from breastfed babies.
BMJ. 2009;338:b1892. doi:10.1136/bmj.b1892

67. Granheim Ionata S, Engelhardt K, Rundall P, Bialous S, Iellamo A, Margetts B. Interference in public health policy.
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68. Becker GE, Ching C, Nguyen TT, Cashin J, Zambrano P, Mathisen R. Babies before business: protecting the integrity of health professionals from institutional conflict of interest.
BMJ Glob Health. 2022;7(8):e009640. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009640

69. Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJD, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect.

The Lancet. 2016;387(10017):475-490. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01024-7

70. Illich I. Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health.
Calder & Boyars; 1974. ISBN 9780394402253
Contrary, but astute and caring, this book explores the various harms healthcare can cause. David Cayley knew Illich and his podcasts help to make sense of this complex character.

71. Russell C. Does more medicine make us sicker? Ivan Illich revisited.
Gac Sanit. 2019;33(6):579-583. doi:10.1016/j.gaceta.2018.11.006

Salutogenesis 72-77 

72. Antonovsky A. The salutogenic model as a theory to guide health promotion.
Health Promot Int. 1996;11(1):11-18. doi:10.1093/heapro/11.1.11

73. World Health Organization. Measurement of and Target-Setting for Well-Being: An Initiative by the WHO Regional Office for Europe.
Regional Office for Europe; 2013.

74. Howell RT, Kern ML, Lyubomirsky S. Health benefits: Meta-analytically determining the impact of well-being on objective health outcomes.
Health Psychol Rev. 2007;1(1):83-136. doi:10.1080/17437190701492486

75. Tennant R, Hiller L, Fishwick R, et al. The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): development and UK validation.
Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2007;5(1):63. doi:10.1186/1477-7525-5-63

76. Aked, Jody, Marks, Nic, Cordon, Corrina, Thompson, Sam. Five Ways to Wellbeing.
New Economics Foundation; 2008.

77. Krasner M. Mindfulness-based interventions: a coming of age?

Fam Syst Health. 2004;22(2):207-212. doi:10.1037/1091-7527.22.2.207

Tables

Table 3.1 Loneliness

a. Berkman L, Syme SL. Social networks, host resistance and mortality: A nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents.
Am J Epidemiol. 1979;109(2):186-204. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112674

b. Luo Y, Hawkley LC, Waite LJ, Cacioppo JT. Loneliness, health, and mortality in old age: A national longitudinal study.
Soc Sci Med. 2012;74(6):907-914. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.028

c. Peytrignet, Sebastien, Garforth-Bles, Simon, Keohane, Kieran. Loneliness Monetisation Report.
Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport; 2020. 

d. Qualter, Pamela. Tackling Loneliness Evidence Review: Main Report.
Dept for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, UK Government; 2022. 

Table 3.2 Measuring loneliness and isolation

a. Steptoe A, Shankar A, Demakakos P, Wardle J. Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women.
Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(15):5797-5801. doi:10.1073/pnas.1219686110

Table 3.3 Mental illness

a. Vigo D, Thornicroft G, Atun R. Estimating the true global burden of mental illness.
Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(2):171-178. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00505-2

b. Mental Health and Wellbeing in England: Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2014.
NHS Digital; 2014. 

c. Alzheimer’s Society. Dementia UK Prevalence Estimate for 2021: Methodology; 2021. 

d. Cybulski L, Ashcroft DM, Carr MJ, et al. Temporal trends in annual incidence rates for psychiatric disorders and self-harm among children and adolescents in the UK, 2003–2018.
BMC Psychiatry. 2021;21(1):229. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03235-w

e. Olfson M, Gerhard T, Huang C, Crystal S, Stroup TS. Premature mortality among adults with schizophrenia in the United States.
JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(12):1172. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1737

f. Public Health England. Psychosis Data Report: Describing Variation in Numbers of People with Psychosis and Their Access to Care in England.
Public Health England; 2016:77.

g. Public Health England. Severe Mental Illness (SMI) and Physical Health Inequalities: Briefing; 2018. 

h. McCrone PR, ed. Paying the Price: The Cost of Mental Health Care in England to 2026.
King’s Fund; 2008.

Table 3.4 Measures of national wellbeing (ONS)

Office for National Statistics. Measures of National Well-Being Dashboard.
ONS; 2019. 

Figures